Biography
A combatant in the Modoc War (1872–1873) — the only Indigenous fighters in U.S. history convicted as "war criminals" by a U.S. military commission for their role in the killing of Brigadier General Edward Canby during peace negotiations at the Lava Beds on April 11, 1873. The Modoc had resisted forced removal from their California ancestral lands to the Klamath Reservation in Oregon for years before the war. Sentenced to life imprisonment and held at Alcatraz federal military prison.
Case
Alcatraz Military Prison
